The principal genres of Hindustani music

An art music tradition supports various genres of music. Each genre has its own history, geography and specificity. But, for the purposes of comprehension, a genre is defined primarily by its architectural features. There are two aspects to understanding the architecture of a musical genre: First is that of understanding its subordinate forms and their movements, and the second, the sequencing of the movements within the subordinate forms.

Hindustani art-music, as performed, can be compared to the telling of a story through the interpretation of a Raga. Movements in a genre of Raga-based music may be compared to the chapters in a book, or acts and scenes in a play. In music, each movement progresses the “story” by the distinctive way in which it crafts the interaction between melody, rhythm and poetry (in the case of vocal music). The sequencing of the movements determines the build-up and release of aesthetic tension in a piece of art music, just as chapters in a novel, or acts in a play, are sequenced to achieve the aesthetic impact of the story-telling.  

In literature, we know that a novel, a short story, a cinema script, and a play, will tend to build and release the tension of the story line in different ways. And this, of course, is why each of them has its own place in the world of literature. Likewise, there are different genres in art music because they deliver different qualities of aesthetic experience. 

On the contemporary art music platform, a listener is likely to encounter the following genres. 

1. Dhrupad (along with its companion sub-genre, Dhamar): This was the dominant genre of vocal and instrumental art music between the 15th and 18th centuries. 

2. Khayal:  This genre began evolving in the 13th century as a fusion of older Indian musical genres and Middle Eastern influence, and began to replace Dhrupad as the dominant genre of vocal music from the 18th century. The Khayal remains, to this day, the dominant vocal genre, with a significant presence also in the music of the bowed and wood-wind instruments. 

3. Thumree: This genre originated as an accompaniment to Kathak (North Indian) dance. The Thumree evolved as a  genre of solo vocal music from the 18th century and retained a significant presence till the middle of the 20th century. As a genre of vocal music, it could not survive the transition from the intimacy of its original milieu to the impersonal  atmosphere of the modern concert hall.  Its manifestation in instrumental music has, however, remained stable. 

4. The modern genre of plucked instruments: This genre is heard primarily on the plucked lutes – Sitar, Sarod, Hawaiian guitar. Their idiom has also been adopted by the percussive-melodic Santoor, the most recent entrant into art-music from folk traditions. Because of the dominance of the plucked string instruments in contemporary music, their idiom is also influencing the wood-wind and bowed instruments. This genre combines elements of the medieval Dhrupad genre, with post-Dhrupad modes of presentation. 

Note:  Of the above four, the Thumree is a borderline case of a Raga-based genre. Its melody is rooted predominantly in the Raga pantheon. But, the musician is allowed considerable liberty in observing the rules of Raga grammar. In addition, the melodic resource of the genre includes folk melodies, which cannot qualify as Raga-s.  

Hindustani Sangeet and a Philosopher of Art

Music, Rhythm and Kathak dance visa-a-vis  aesthetics of Susanne K. Langer

Author: Sushil Kumar Saxena 

Pages: 363. Hard-cover price: Rs. 600.00

Publisher: DK Printworld Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. 2001

 This book is decidedly the first of its kind. It seeks to weigh some basic facts and concepts of Hindustani Sangeet (music, rhythm and dance) against the art theories of the influential modern aesthetician, Susanne K. Langer, and with consistently meticulous attention to the text of her writings.

The expression theory of art has for long dominated the history of aesthetics. At the hands of Langer,however, the theory takes a new turn. She conceives of art not as a direct self-expression of the artist’s immediate affective state, but as a symbolic expression of his knowledge of what she terms variously as felt life, sentience, or forms of feeling. 

Drawing freely upon examples from the region of Hindustani Sangeet, the author accepts Langer’s protest against the popular view of artistic expression. But, he also contends that there is a good deal in our music and dance which has nothing to do with feeling, and is admired simply because of its sweetness, clarity, shapeliness, and accordance with grammatical norms.

Perhaps the most two most striking features of this book are: first, a lucid exposition of the essentials of Langer’s aesthetics, and second, abounding illustrative references to the manifestation and assumptions of Hindustani Sangeet.

Sushil Kumar Saxena (1920-2013), formerly Professor of Philosophy  at Delhi University, was amongst the most respected and original thinkers on the aesthetics of Hindustani music, rhythm and Kathak dance, with several pioneering works to his credit. He was a Fellow of the Sangeet Natak Akademi and of the Indian Council of Philosophical Research.

Raga: The "Commanding Form" in Hindustani music

All art submits to its audience a form for aesthetic appreciation.  Literature submits a verbal form. Painting and sculpture submit a visual form. Architecture submits visual and spatial/enveloping forms which warrant aesthetic evaluation apart from the structure’s functional values. Music submits an auditory form.  Like other forms, the musical form is governed by a “commanding form” which governs the entirety of the musical endeavor and its experience. With specific reference to Western art music, the influential aesthetician, Susanne K Langer, granted the status of the "Commanding Form" appropriately to the composition. In Hindustani music, we find that the composition is itself subservient to the Raga.  In our music, therefore, the status of the “commanding form” most be  accorded to the Raga.

A Raga is a partially precomposed matrix of melodic contours, tight enough to remain recognizable and loose enough to provide substantial creative freedom. Each Raga justifies itself as performance material because it makes a distinctive emotional statement. It can be described as a psycho acoustic hypothesis which relates qualifying melodic patterns to the associated quality of emotional responses. At each rendition, a musician works on this hypothesis and deploys his creativity in an attempt to maximize the probability of communicating the associated emotional idea.

Raga-s are not “composed” by any particular musician. Their origins are mostly indeterminate. They evolve over a period of time from a variety of source melodies as plausible triggers for well-defined categories of emotional responses. It is estimated that the melodic grammar of about a 1500 Ragas has been documented.  The music-scape of each generation sees some Raga-s coming into circulation, and some going out of fashion. The core of commonly performed ragas remains around 200. 

Note: For a comprehensive view on this subject, read:  "Hindustani Sangeet and a Philosopher of Art" by SK Saxena, DK Printworld, New Delhi 2001.

It is "Art" Music; not "classical"...

The description of Hindustani music as “Classical music” is one of the unfortunate things to happen to this tradition. The objections to this description are several. Three, however, deserve special mention. Firstly, the description is an import from Western music, where “Classical” refers to scholarly music composed during the “Classical” period. Any period-specific connotation is inapplicable to Hindustani music. Secondly, in common usage, the word “classical” has to come to suggest an elitist barrier (“class” as the opposite of “mass”), which again is misleading in the sense in which most people understand it.  And, finally, the adjective is scientifically imprecise, because it does not allow its features to be distinguished from other categories of music prevalent in the same culture.

Scholars therefore recommend the term “Art” music in preference to “Classical” music. This nomenclature is faithful to its features, and also allows us to distinguish it from other major musical categories – primitive music, folk music, popular music, devotional music, and martial music. These various categories co-exist in the musical culture, and are distinct in their features. Of course, they also interact with each other in often imperceptible ways and may also overlap.

Hindustani music should therefore be considered a spontaneous, living, and constantly evolving expression of society’s musical needs and aspirations. It is an organic part of the musical culture, and not something outside it. It is accessible to almost anyone within the culture, though indeed with some effort. In short, it is not music from a different planet.

Features of art music

As a distinct category of music, Art Music has its defining features. It is devoted towards the achievement of aesthetic objectives, to the exclusion of all others. It relies entirely on auditory stimuli to achieve its aesthetic purpose. The existence of other stimuli (e.g. visual appeal or bodily movement) is incidental, and considered disruptive, if it draws particular attention to itself. Art music is abstract in the sense that it does not explicitly represent anything in particular outside of itself. And, finally, to qualify as Art, it also has to define the artist – and to this extent, it is also individualistic. This feature is even more important in Hindustani music because, it combines in the same person the simultaneous roles of composer and performer.  

An Art Music tradition generally incorporates several genres within itself, each with its well-defined disciplines and degrees of artistic freedom. Because of the simultaneous operation of discipline and artistic freedom, the appreciation and enjoyment of Art Music grows directly in proportion to the awareness of the rules that guide performance. This very phenomenon of discipline alongside artistic freedom allows music to change and evolve in response to changing audience profiles and tastes. As a parallel reflection of this dialectic, an art music tradition supports a scholarly tradition which monitors the performing tradition and conceptualizes trends in practice. 

For a detailed discussion on this subject, read "Hindustani Music Today" by Deepak Raja, DK Printworld, New Delhi 2012. 

Hindustani Music Today: Book Review by Kuldeep Kumar in "SANGNA"

हिंदुस्तानी म्यूज़िक टुडे, दीपक एस. राजा, डीके प्रिंटवर्ल्ड, पृ. 138, मू. 320 रु.

समकालीन हिंदुस्तानी संगीत का परिदृश्य

कुलदीप कुमार

दीपक एस. राजा का व्यक्तित्व बहुआयामी है। उन्होंने दिल्ली विश्वविद्यालय से बी.ए. (ऑनर्स) करने के बाद इंडियन इंस्टीट्यूट ऑफ बिजिनेस मेनेजमेंट, अहमदाबाद से एम.बी.ए. किया, ‘बिजिनेस इंडिया’ पत्रिका के संपादक और इंडियन न्यूज़पेपर सोसाइटी के महासचिव रहे, इमदादखानी घराने के पंडित पुलिन देब बर्मन एवं पंडित अरविंद पारिख जैसे संगीतकारों से सितार और सुरबहार बजाना सीखा, और जयपुर घराने की गायिका धोंडुताई कुलकर्णी से खयाल की शिक्षा ली। साथ-साथ उन्होंने संगीत पर लेख और पुस्तकें लिखना भी शुरू किया और आज उनकी गिनती देश के महत्वपूर्ण संगीतशास्त्रियों में की जाती है।

इस वर्ष जनवरी में डीके प्रिंटवर्ल्ड ने उनकी ताज़ातरीन किताब ‘हिंदुस्तानी म्यूज़िक टुडे’प्रकाशित की है। बहुत समय से संगीत के जानकार यह मुद्दा उठाते रहे हैं कि क्या राग-संगीत को शास्त्रीय, अर्ध- या उप-शास्त्रीय और सुगम संगीत जैसी संज्ञाओं से अभिहित किया जाना चाहिए? पुस्तक के पहले अध्याय में दीपक राजा ने इसी प्रश्न पर विचार किया है और ‘शास्त्रीय संगीत’ की तुलना में ‘कला संगीत’ नाम को बेहतर माना है। उनका यह कहना सही है कि राग-संगीत को पाश्चात्य संगीतशास्त्रीय चिंतन के प्रभाव के कारण ही क्लासिकल या शास्त्रीय संगीत कहा जाने लगा जबकि स्वयं पश्चिम में इस संज्ञा पर विवाद है। शुरू में इसे बारोक युग के अंत और रोमांटिक युग के आरंभ के बीच रचा गया संगीत माना जाता था और बेठोफेन, मोत्ज़ार्ट तथा हेडेन जैसे संगीतकारों की रचनाओं के लिए इस नाम का इस्तेमाल होता था लेकिन अब इसकी परिधि में पिछले 400-500 वर्षों के संगीत को समेट लिया गया है। दीपक राजा कलात्मक विविधता और वैयक्तिक रचनाशीलता वाले इस संगीत को ‘कला संगीत’ मानते हैं। यहाँ यह उल्लेख अनुचित न होगा कि हमारी संगीत परंपरा में इस प्रकार के संगीत को ‘मार्गी’ और इससे इतर लोकप्रचलित संगीत को ‘देशी’ कहा जाता था। ‘मार्गी’ संगीत से यह संकेत भी मिलता है कि इस संगीत के सृजन में संगीतकार एक विशेष पद्धति या मार्ग का अनुसरण करता है और उसे अपनी सृजनात्मकता की अभिव्यक्ति के लिए पूरी स्वतन्त्रता तो उपलब्ध है, पर अराजकता नहीं। यदि दीपक राजा इस पारंपरिक नामकरण और इसकी उपयुक्तता या अनुपयुक्तता पर भी विचार करते तो शायद इस बिन्दु पर कुछ और प्रकाश पड़ सकता था।

इस पुस्तक के केंद्र में ऐसे श्रोता हैं जो हमारे ‘शास्त्रीय’ या ‘कला’ या ‘मार्गी’ संगीत में गंभीर दिलचस्पी तो रखते हैं पर उसके आस्वादन के लिए आवश्यक उपकरण और जानकारी से लैस नहीं हैं। लेखक ऐसे श्रोताओं से ही मुखातिब है और इससे इस पुस्तक की उपादेयता एवं प्रासंगिकता बहुत बढ़ गई है। पुस्तक के दूसरे अध्याय में रागानुभव को हम तक पहुंचाने वाले उपादानों के बारे में जानकारी दी गई है और इस प्रक्रिया में संगीत के ध्रुपद, खयाल और ठुमरी जैसे रूपों और राग, बंदिश तथा ताल के स्वरूप और उनके महत्व को स्पष्ट किया गया है और समझाया गया है कि किस प्रकार से कोई भी गायक या वादक केवल राग के चौखटे में ही नहीं, बंदिश और ताल की सीमाओं में भी बंधा रहकर ही अपने गायन या वादन की प्रस्तुति कर सकता है। इस संदर्भ में लेखक ने एक महत्वपूर्ण बात कही है कि राग की तरह ही ताल का भी अपना विशेष मूड होता है और उसके मूड को ध्यान में रखकर ही कलाकार को उसे बरतना होता है।

जैसाकि शीर्षक से ही स्पष्ट हैं, “मध्यरात्रि में भैरव” इस पुस्तक का बेहद विचारोत्तेजक और विवादास्पद अध्याय है। यह खुशी की बात है कि दीपक राजा ने इस विषय पर लेखनी उठाई है क्योंकि उनके विचारों से भले ही असहमति हो, लेकिन इस विषय के महत्त्व से इंकार नहीं किया जा सकता। अब समय आ गया है जब संगीतकारों और संगीतशास्त्रियों को एक साथ बैठकर इस पर चर्चा करनी चाहिए और एक प्रकार की आम सहमति बनाने की कोशिश करनी चाहिए कि क्या राग-समय सिद्धान्त का पालन करना अनिवार्य है या नई परिस्थितियों में उसे खारिज करना ही उचित होगा। अक्सर संगीत के कार्यक्रमों में गायक या वादक अमुक राग को अमुक समय ही गाने-बजाने के नियम में ढील बरतने लगे हैं और धीरे-धीरे अराजकता की सी स्थिति बनती जा रही है। ऐसे में इस मुद्दे के सभी पहलुओं पर विचार करके एक सर्वानुमति तैयार करने की बेहद ज़रूरत है। दीपक राजा का विचार है कि दक्षिण भारतीय या कर्नाटक शैली की तरह ही उत्तर भारतीय या हिंदुस्तानी शैली में भी रागों को उनके निर्धारित समय पर प्रस्तुत करने की अनिवार्यता समाप्त होनी चाहिए। उन्होंने दिन के समय, सूर्य के प्रकाश, मौसम, राग के रसभाव आदि अनेक कारकों के साथ रागों का वैज्ञानिक दृष्टि से संबंध निर्धारित करने की कोशिश की है और यह निष्कर्ष निकाला है कि बदली परिस्थितियों में, जब अधिकांश संगीत प्रस्तुतियाँ शाम और रात के समय होती हैं और सुबह के राग सुनने में ही नहीं आते, मध्यरात्रि के समय भैरव गाने-बजाने पर नाक-भौं न सिकोड़ी जाये। उनका यह निष्कर्ष भी है कि रागविशेष को एक विशिष्ट कालावधि में ही गाने-बजाने की बाध्यता का कोई वैज्ञानिक आधार नहीं है।

वैज्ञानिक आधार हो या न हो, यह तो स्पष्ट है कि सुबह आँख खुलने के क्षण जो हमारी मनःस्थिति होती है, वह रात में उस समय नहीं जब आँखें झपने वाली होती हैं। सुबह दस बजे और रात के दस बजे हमारा शरीर और मन एक जैसा महसूस नहीं करते। फिर, परंपरा ने रागों के साथ अनेक अनुषंग जोड़ दिये हैं और हमारे मन-मस्तिष्क में यह बात गहराई के साथ बैठ गई है कि सुबह दस बजे दरबारी सुनने पर उसका वह असर नहीं होता तो उसे मध्यरात्रि के आसपास सुनने पर होता है। इसके पीछे संभवतः हमारे मन का अनुकूलन या कन्डीशनिंग ही है। उसके पीछे वैज्ञानिक कारण हो भी सकता है और नहीं भी हो सकता। उसी तरह जैसे बसंत के साथ पीला रंग जुड़ गया है और बसंत पंचमी के दिन पीले कपड़े पहनकर अच्छा लगता है। यूं पीले कपड़े पहनने की बाध्यता नहीं है। दीपक राजा ने इस मुद्दे पर विचार करके भविष्य में इस पर और विचार-विमर्श किए जाने का मार्ग प्रशस्त किया है। इस दृष्टि से यह स्वागतयोग्य और पठनीय है। यहाँ यह बता दें कि स्वयं उनके इमदादखानी घराने के श्रेष्ठतम रत्न उस्ताद विलायत खां रागों को उनके निर्धारित समय पर ही गाने-बजाने के हामी थे।

पुस्तक में घरानों और उनके भविष्य पर भी एक अध्याय है जिसमें घरानों में शैलियों के बनने और पुष्ट होने की प्रक्रिया का बहुत सुंदर विवेचन किया गया है। लेखक का निष्कर्ष है कि अब घरानों के बीच बहुत अधिक आदान-प्रदान हो रहा है और शैलियाँ आपस में घुलमिल रही हैं। अब घराना कुनबे की जगह शैली का ही अधिक बोध कराता है। लेकिन उनका यह निष्कर्ष पूरी तरह सही नहीं लगता कि घरानों में जो क्लोनिंग यानि नकल होती थी, घराना प्रणाली के कमजोर पड़ने के कारण अब वह समाप्त हो गई है। वास्तविकता यह है कि अब रिकार्डिंग्स उपलब्ध होने के कारण कोई भी किसी की भी नकल करने के लिए स्वतंत्र है, बिना उससे सीखे। नाम लिए बगैर कहा जा सकता है कि इस समय एकाध कुमार गंधर्व और कई भीमसेन जोशी, निखिल बैनर्जी और विलायत खां संगीत समारोहों में गा-बजा रहे हैं।

पुस्तक में खयाल, ध्रुपद, ठुमरी और टप्पा पर स्वतंत्र अध्याय हैं जो अत्यंत उपयोगी जानकारी और सूक्ष्म विश्लेषण के कारण बार-बार पढ़े जाने की मांग करते हैं। लेकिन टप्पे पर अध्याय में ग्वालियर घराने में टप्पे की स्वीकार्यता की चर्चा के दौरान अपने टप्पे और टप्प-खयाल के लिए विख्यात दिग्गज खयाल गायक कृष्णराव शंकर पंडित का उल्लेख न होना कुछ अजीब लगा। लेखक की यह टिप्पणी बिलकुल सटीक है कि किराना और जयपुर-अतरौली घरानों ने टप्पे पर ध्यान नहीं दिया (हालांकि मल्लिकार्जुन मंसूर कभी-कभी टप्पा भी गाया करते थे, शायद ग्वालियर गायकी में हुई शुरुआती तालीम के असर में)।  लेकिन यह समझ में नहीं आया कि लेखक ने यह निष्कर्ष किस आधार पर निकाला है कि ग्वालियर घराने के कई कलाकारों के आगरा घराने की ओर उन्मुख होने के कारण उसमें टप्पगायन की परंपरा क्षीण होती गई। आगरे के असर में ओतप्रोत बालासाहब पूछवाले अच्छा-खासा टप्पा गाते थे, और अक्सर गाते थे। इसी तरह यह निष्कर्ष भी गले से नहीं उतरता कि अपनी चंचल प्रकृति के कारण टप्पे का भविष्य ठुमरी की तुलना में अधिक उज्ज्वल है जबकि वास्तविकता यह है, और लेखक ने उसे स्वयं स्वीकार किया है, कि इस समय टप्पा गाने वालों की संख्या बेहद कम है। लक्ष्मण कृष्णराव पंडित और मालिनी राजुरकर इस समय टप्पे के सर्वाधिक प्रामाणिक गायक हैं और लेखक ने इस संदर्भ में उनका नामोल्लेख भी किया है। अकेली मंजरी आसनारे-केलकर के टप्पागायन को अपनाने से टप्पे के भविष्य का अंदाज़ नहीं लगाया जा सकता क्योंकि वह भी अपनी सार्वजनिक प्रस्तुतियों में अक्सर टप्पा नहीं गातीं।

क्योंकि लेखक स्वयं सितार और सुरबहार के सिद्धहस्त वादक हैं, इसलिए इस पुस्तक में आजकल प्रचलित सभी वाद्य-यंत्रों पर अलग-अलग अध्यायों में बहुत संक्षेप में लेकिन विषय के भीतर गहरी पैठ के साथ जानकारी दी गई है जो पुस्तक में चार-चाँद लगा देती है। तानपूरे को अक्सर श्रोता फालतू का तामझाम समझते हैं लेकिन तानपूरे और स्वरमण्डल पर एक पृथक अध्याय लिखकर दीपक राजा ने हमारे कला-संगीत में आधार-स्वर के महत्व और उसकी उत्पत्ति में तानपूरे की भूमिका पर बहुत खूबसूरती के साथ प्रकाश डाला है। अन्य वाद्ययंत्रों के बारे में जानकारी तो अन्यत्र भी मिल सकती है, पर तानपूरे और स्वरमण्डल का जैसा विवरण और विश्लेषण दीपक राजा ने किया है, वह अन्यत्र दुर्लभ है। इस अध्याय को पढ़ना एक सांगीतिक अनुभव से गुजरने जैसा ही है।

इस प्रकार की पुस्तकें जहां सामान्य श्रोता की जानकारी और समझ में इजाफा करती हैं, वहीं विशेषज्ञों के लिए भी अनेक बिन्दुओं पर विचार करने के लिए सामग्री उपलब्ध कराती हैं। इस पुस्तक की विशेषता है कि यह संगीत की भारीभरकम तकनीकी शब्दावली से पाठक को आतंकित करने के बजाय उसकी जिज्ञासावृत्ति को उत्तेजित करती हुई चलती है और इस क्रम में उसे सिखाती है कि वह हिन्दुस्तानी कला-संगीत को किस तरह सुने और समझे। दीपक राजा इस प्रयत्न के लिए साधुवाद के पात्र हैं। 

The Pakhawaj: Bramha’s handiwork

The Pakhawaj (originally known as Mridang) is a venerated instrument. The Mridangam of Carnatic music belongs to the same family. The instrument was originally made of clay. In recent years, however, it has been crafted from wood.

Mythology attributes the Mridang’s origination to Brahma, the Creator of the universe. According to legend, Lord Shiva was once dancing totally out of synch with rhythm. Bramha  was worried that Shiva’s wayward footwork might disturb the balance of the universe. So, he instructed Vishwakarma to craft a drum, and ordered Ganesha to start playing it in order to discipline Shiva’s dance. Thus the Mirdang/ Pakhawaj was born. Several other Indian instruments are associated with such legends, suggesting their antiquity and untraceable origins. 

RAJA CHHATRAPATI SINGH

Up to 18th century AD, the Mridang/ Pakhawaj was the dominant rhythmic accompaniment for art music and even Kathak dance. Today, its presence is largely limited to the Dhrupad genre. The Hindustani mainstream now prefers the Tabla across all modern genres of music. The Pakhawaj, no doubt, still enjoys immense prestige as the originator, developer, and preserver of the rhythmic science and percussion art.

The most widely cited derivation of its name is from Sanskrit: Paksha = side + Vadya = instrument. The Pakhawaj is a horizontal wooden barrel-drum, asymmetrical on one side. Its forearm-powered open-palm playing technique gives its sound a booming resonance and sonorous dignity. In addition to accompaniment, the Pakhawaj also has a solo tradition for connoisseurs of rhythm. 

Having been a resident of the Vaishnava temples along with Dhrupad, the Pakhawaj cultivated its art most assiduously in the Mathura/ Vrindavan region. From there, it travelled to the Mughal court with Dhrupad, and continued its forward march. The landmark figure in Pakhawaj history was Lala Bhagwandas, a product of the Mathura/Vrindavan tradition, and an esteemed musician at Akbar’s court (16th century). His disciples spearheaded Pakhawaj traditions in several parts of the country – Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Bengal.

When Dhrupad was declared a “museum piece” in the early years after independence, this description did not apply to the Pakhawaj. After European and US markets warmed up to Dhrupad, starting from the 1960s, gathering steam in the 1980s, the Pakhawaj scene also got a shot of adrenalin. The instrument now shares the fruits of the Dhrupad revival. 

The Pakhawaj now also appears to be on the threshold of the global market for Indian and cross-cultural ensembles. Several Hindustani and Carnatic percussion instruments have entered this segment since the 1980s. The entry of the Pakhawaj, though late, is hardly surprising. Any instrument which speaks the language of rhythm with such grace and authority had to, one day, find a global audience.  

Amongst segments of the Dhrupad legacy, the world of the Pakhawaj continues to be more vibrant than either Dhrupad vocalism or the Rudra Veena. Historians attribute the comfortable supply of Pakhawaj players to the additional talent available outside art music – in the devotional music traditions, where the instrument is well-entrenched and relatively insulated from market forces.

Note: For a detailed report on the Pakhawaj and the Tabla, please read "Hindustani Music Today", by Deepak Raja, DK Printworld, New Delhi.

The violin in Hindustani music

MS GOPALAKRISHNAN

During his trips to India, the iconic Western violinist, Lord Yehudi Menuhin, never failed to meet and hear MS Gopalakrishnan, the Indian violinist. Interestingly, Gopalakrishnan commands equal stature amongst Carnatic and Hindustani connoisseurs.  His musical persona virtually sums up the story of the violin in Hindustani music.  

How it all began

The violin came to India with European colonists -- the French in Pondicherry, the Portuguese in Goa, and the British in Bengal. It was introduced to Indian art music by Baluswamy Dikshitar (1786-1858), a brother of the legendary Carnatic composer, Muthuswamy Dikhsitar. By the end of the 19th century, the violin had been enthusiastically accepted at the Mysore and Travancore courts. Since then, several generations of violinists have worked to make the violin a major instrument in Carnatic music.

The instrument entered Hindustani music in the 1930s through the initiatives of Allauddin Khan (Baba), Vishnu Digambar Paluskar, SN Ratanjankar, and Gajananrao Joshi.

Allauddin Khan, also a master of the violin, published the first ever violin recording of Hindustani music on a 78 rpm disc. His disciple, Timir Baran, introduced the violin to film industry orchestration, and another disciple, VG Jog, emerged as a towering violinist. SN Ratanjankar, the principal of the Maris College of Music at Lucknow, invited VG Jog to teach at the institution.

Around the same time, Vishnu Digambar invited Parur Sundaram Iyer, an eminent Carnatic violinist (the father of MS Gopalakrishnan) to teach at Gandharva Mahavidyalaya. Gajananrao Joshi, an eminent vocalist of the Gwalior gharana, was ordered by his patron, the feudal chief of Aundh in Maharashtra, to master the violin – which he did without a teacher, and later groomed several young violinists.

Second fiddle or first?

Until the acceptance of the bowed instruments in art music, the Hindustani and Carnatic traditions both gave pride of place to the Veena as an accompanist to vocal music. Once violin accompaniment partially replaced the Veena in Carnatic music, it was also able to emerge as a solo instrument. When the violin entered Hindustani music – almost three generations after its Carnatic debut -- the Sarangi was the preferred accompaniment, but fast losing ground to the Harmonium. Hindustani music thus ended up reserving the violin for solo performance, and using it only sporadically as an accompaniment. 

For evolving into a mature instrument for Indian art music, the violin has thus had much more time and much wider exposure in the Carnatic tradition, than in Hindustani music. Little wonder then that Hindustani music remains indebted to Carnatic music for the art of the violin.

Contemporary Hindustani violinists

The most venerated violinist is MS Gopalakrishnan (born: 1931), popularly called MSG. He studied the violin in the Carnatic and Hindustani traditions with his father, Parur Sundaram Iyer.  After his father’s demise, he studied Kairana gharana (Hindustani) vocalism with Guru Krishnananda. He exploded onto the Hindustani music scene in his early youth, accompanying leading vocalist like Omkarnath Thakur, DV Paluskar and Bade Gulam Ali Khan. His trajectory in Carnatic music was equally sensational. Despite a less frequent presence on the Hindustani platform, his name spells magic amongst connoisseurs in both the traditions.

DK DATAR

In the same generation as MSG, the Paluskar tradition of the violin is represented by DK Datar (born: 1932). He studied the violin under Vighneshwara Shastry, and vocal music under his uncle, DV Paluskar.

The Carnatic tradition continues to lead the Hindustani art through N Rajam (born: 1938). She studied Carnatic music under her violinist father, Narayana Iyer, and the famous vocalist, Musiri Subramaniam Iyer. While still in her teens, she became a concert performer and accompanist to the tallest Carnatic vocalists, including MS Subbalakshmi.

N RAJAM

She later enrolled for a degree from the Benares Hindu University (BHU), where Omkarnth Thakur headed the Faculty of Music. Once she joined BHU as a Lecturer, her musical persona flowered as a performer, teacher, and academician under her mentor’s supervision.

The Hindustani violin today

Rajam is acknowledged as the foremost Hindustani violinist today. In the next generation, the significant Hindustani violinists are both Rajam’s disciples -- her daughter, Sangeeta Shankar, and her niece, Kala Ramnath, who later became a disciple of  the distinguished vocalist, Jasraj. In a sense, quality Hindustani musicianship on the violin is presently the domain of Carnatic expertise.

While pockets of violin training do exist in the Hindustani music world, there is still a noticeable absence of a “violin culture” which can nurture quality musicians. Violin enthusiasts  hope that Hindustani music will continue to attract exceptional violinists from the Carnatic culture at least for a few more generations. 

Note: For a detailed report on the Violin in Hindustani music, refer "Hindustani Music Today", by Deepak Raja. DK Printworld, New Delhi.

The Tabla: Everybody wants Zakir

ZAKIR HUSSAIN

Every musician in India wants Zakir to accompany him. Every assembly of Indian connoisseurs wants to hear a Zakir solo. Every Kathak dancer wants Zakir to add sizzle to her footwork. Every world-music ensemble wants Zakir as the lead percussionist. And, every student of the Tabla wants to be a Zakir. This is, undoubtedly, the triumph of a charismatic genius called Zakir Hussain. But, it is also the victory of the Indian art of percussion, and of rhythm as a musical expression sufficient unto itself.  

Zakir Hussain is a product of the North Indian art music tradition of transforming geocentric time into musical time, which began with the Pakhawaj several millennia ago, and continues with the Tabla. 

The origin of the Tabla, the vertical drum pair, is a puzzle that defies solution. The instrument came into prominence during the 15th century at the dawn of the modern era in Hindustani music. The ponderous Dhrupad genre was being challenged by the modern Khayal genre. In the emerging post-Dhrupad scenario, Hindustani music needed a percussion partner of greater agility, delicate playing technique, and softer output. The Tabla, already a mature instrument by then, steadily enlarged its role on the emerging music-scape, to finally replace the Pakhawaj by the 18th century.

Historic developments in the Tabla idiom took place during the reign of Emperor Muhammad Shah of Delhi (1719-1748), whose court was also host to the launch of the Sitar, and the maturation of Khayal vocalism. The musician responsible for the percussion revolution was Siddhar Khan Dhadhi. He was an accomplished Pakhawaj player, who translated the forearm-powered open-palm Pakhawaj idiom into the wrist-and-fingers idiom of the Tabla, thus creating an entirely new percussion language. His students spread to other major centers of music, and adapted the style to respond to local influences and aesthetic values. As a result, the world of the Tabla now recognizes six major styles, known by the names of the centers where they evolved.

(a) Delhi: In recent times, Inam Ali Khan and Lateef Ahmed Khan have been the most distinguished exponents of this gharana.

(b) Ajrada: Habibuddin Khan was the most distinguished percussionist of this style in recent memory.

(c) Lucknow: Afaque Hussain Khan was the most recent distinguished percussionist of this lineage.

AHMED JAN THIRAKWA

(d) Farukhabad: This tradition produced three luminaries in the same generation: Ahmed Jan Thirakwa, Shamsuddin Khan, and Ameer Hussain Khan.

(e) Benares: This pedigree again produced three outstanding percussionists in the same generation – Shamta Prasad, Kishen Maharaj, and Anokhey Lal.

(f) Punjab: This style produced the super-stars of late 20th century music – Allahrakha Khan, and his son, Zakir Hussain. Though masters of their own traditional idiom, the Punjab lineage maestros  have enriched it with ideas from several other sources.

The stylistic distinctions between these lineages are, obviously, not as evident in accompaniment, as they are in solo performance, because an accompanist needs to respond spontaneously, free from gharana preferences. 

The Tabla today commands the largest base of professional, amateur, and aspiring musicianship amongst all Indian instruments. The profession is amply endowed with scholarly as well as creative faculties. The idiom of the instrument is being constantly enriched by contemporary maestros. As an accompanist, soloist or ensemble performer, and in India or abroad, the Tabla is in good health. 

Note: For a detailed discussion on the Pakhawaj and the Tabla, refer to "Hindustani Music Today", by Deepak Raja, DK Printworld, 2012.

The meteoric rise of the Sarod

The Sarod is today a rival of the Sitar for popularity and stature. Its maturity conceals the fact that its transformation from a crude acoustic machine into a scintillating musical instrument has taken place largely in the 20th century.

Instruments of the Sarod family (short-necked plucked lutes) are known to have been played in India around 600 AD, perhaps even earlier. However, the Sarod’s identifiable ancestors apparently came with soldiers from the Middle East. The instrument has two ancestors, different in design, but both called Rabab . One came from Persia, and the other, from Afghanistan. In terms of their basic design and idiom, the Persian Rabab and the Afghan Rabab evolved independently till the early 19th century, and converged finally in the present-day Sarod.

The word “Sarod” is probably derived from the Perso-Arabic “Shah-rud”, meaning song, melody, music. Its first use to denote an Indian musical instrument is encountered in 1830. The earliest significant Sarodist recorded in history is, Ghulam Ali Khan Bangash (early 19th century), an Afghan who had settled at Gwalior.

Because of its wooden body, skin-clad chamber, and catgut strings, the Rabab was an unstable instrument, reacting erratically to climatic changes. It adopted the present-day metallic fingerboard and metal strings probably from the Sursingar, a magnified variant of the Rabab, which is now extinct. With this change, the Sarod became the only plucked instrument in Hindustani music to have a shell made of wood, and an upper made of skin and metal, thus defining its unique acoustics.

Considerable re-engineering of the Sarod took place during the early part of the 20th century. This work delivered the rich acoustics of the Maihar design, which is now something of an industry standard, while alternative designs also have a distinguished following.

With constant re-engineering and exceptional musicianship enlarging the scope of melody, the martial history of the Afghan Rabab, and the robust aural experience are no longer dominant in Sarod music. But, they remain integral to the Sarod's musical personality.  

Stylistic legacies in Sarod music

Despite the obvious limitations of stylistic specialisation with reference to so young an instrument, certain lineages of Rabab/Sarod players have claimed distinctive status. The most authoritative recent identification of these lineages was done in 1991 at a Seminar conducted by the ITC Sangeet Research Academy. The seminar identified five lineages that have been represented by quality musicianship in the post-independence period.

ALI AKBAR KHAN

(a) The Maihar lineage, also  referred to as the Maihar-Seniya lineage: The lineage is named after the town of Maihar in Madhya Pradesh, which   Allauddin Khan, its founder, made his home. The Seniya suffix refers to the founder’s principal Guru,   Wazir Khan of Rampur, a descendant of Miyan Tansen. After the demise of   Ali Akbar Khan in 2009, this lineage is represented by his son,   Ashish Khan, and a large number of Indian and foreign disciples. 

RADHIKA MOHAN MAITRA

(b) The lineage of Mohammad Ameer Khan: The founder of the lineage, Mohammad Ameer Khan was 6th generation descendant of Ghulam Ali Khan Bangash. Through his distinguished disciple,   Radhika Mohan Maitra, this lineage has conserved the traditional Rabab idiom as the primary idiom of the Sarod. In recent times, this lineage has been represented by Maitra’s disciples, Buddhadev Dasgupta and Kalyan Mukherjea.

AMJAD ALI KHAN

(c) The lineage of Ghulam Bandegi Khan Bangash: This lineage traces its origins to Ghulam Bandegi Khan Bangash, the grandfather of Ghulam Ali Khan Bangash, the first Sarod player on record. On the contemporary concert platform, this lineage is represented by   Amjad Ali Khan.

(d) The Lucknow-Shahjehanpur lineage: This lineage traces its origins to Najaf Ali Khan (1705-1760) of Shahjehanpur and Madar Khan (1704-1752) of Lucknow. Theirs was a lineage of Afghan Rabab players, groomed in the Dhrupad/ Rudra Veena idiom. The last significant Sarod player of this lineage was   Sakhawat Hussain Khan (1875-1955) who served on the faculty of the Bhatkhande Music University in Lucknow.

(e) The Niamatullah-Karamatulla Khan lineage: Niamatullah Khan was an Afghan Rabab player, who moved to Calcutta from Awadh in 1857 along with Nawab Wajid Ali Shah in exile. Niamatullah and his son, Karamatulla established a lineage of Rabab, Sursingar and Sarod players. Karamatullah Khan’s son, Ishtiaque Ahmed, was also an outstanding sarod player. The last significant exponent of this lineage was Shyam Ganguly.

Sarod styles today

The contemporary Sarod idiom reflects three principal tendencies. The traditional rabab-influenced idiom dominates the music of the lineage of   Mohammed Ameer Khan, represented by the disciples of   Radhika Mohan Maitra. The Rudra Veena-influenced idiom, incorporating several other influences, dominates the music of the Maihar Seniya stylistic lineage --   Allauddin Khan, and his son,  Ali Akbar Khan. In the lineage of Ghulam Ali Khan Bangash, his direct descendant,   Amjad Ali Khan is credited with driving the instrument’s idiom towards modern vocalism.

Considering the recency of the Sarod’s emergence as a front ranking instrument, and   Ali Akbar Khan’s towering presence over it, most music lovers may not discern the stylistic variety on display today. But, it does exist, and is being reinforced by systematic propagation in each lineage.

Note: For a detailed discussion on the Sarod, please refer to “Hindustani Music Today” and "Hindustani Music -- a Tradition in Transition", by Deepak Raja, DK Printworld, New Delhi.

Just released.... Hindustani Music Today

Author: Deepak S. Raja
Foreword: Pandit Arvind Parikh
Publisher: DK Printworld, New Delhi 2011

Paperback: Rs.320.00/ US$ 16.00

Hard-cover: Rs. 600.00/ US$ 27.00

For orders: Email: indology@dkprintworld.com

In HINDUSTANI MUSIC TODAY, the author presents a panoramic view of Hindustani art music as viewed at the dawn of the 21^st century.  It addresses educated readers, who may not have been introduced to Hindustani music in their early years, but have been drawn to it as mature adults. Its objective is to share with them an intelligent perspective on what this music is, where it comes from, and where it might possibly be going.

The book covers all the major genres of vocal music, as well all the musical instruments that are currently heard on the Hindustani music platform. Along with a brief history of each, the book identifies ithe major trends in performance, and contributes significantly to the appreciation of contemporary Hindustani music.

Amongst the genres of vocal music, the book covers Dhrupad, Khayal, Thumree and Tappa. Amongst the major instruments, the book covers Rudra Veena (Been), Sitar, Surbahar, Sarod, Santoor, the Hawaiian Guitar, Bamboo flute, Shehnai, Violin, Sarangi, Harmonium, Tanpura, Swaramandal, Pakhawaj and Tabla.

Written by an author of respectable credentials as a musician, researcher, critic, and musicologist , HINDUSTANI MUSIC TODAY presents its facts, ideas, and perspectives without technical details, and in simple language, while also satisfying the needs of the more discerning readers.

Since 1994/95,, Deepak Raja has been a Repertoire Analyst for India Archive Music Ltd. New York. In 1999, he co-edited the Indian Musicological Society’s publication titled “Perspectives on Dhrupad”. His first book: “Hindustani music – a tradition in transition”, was published in 2005. His second book, “Khayal vocalism – continuity within change”, was published in 2009. In 2009, he was granted a Senior Research Fellowship by the Ministry of Culture, Government of India.